1. [1] The old Colonial Empire of England reached its greatest prosperity with the Peace of Paris in . England was now supreme over North America, and had won so many West Indian islands that the French possessions sank into insignificance. In South America its dependency Portugal ruled over the Brazils. In the East the French had been driven out and the Dutch traded on sufferance. In East and West alike the Spaniards trembled lest they should be overthrown by the pushing heretics from the North. But few Englishmen, and no English statesman save Chatham, realised the new responsibilities that the increased growth and prosperity of the Colonies brought upon the mother-country. Though the Colonies were as free as they could be politically, the old notion that colonies existed only for the good of England, as farms to be worked for its benefit, found an expression in the trading system which checked the development of the young communities. Their increasing wealth and strength only led to a desire to interfere still more, since so much more was now to be got from interference. Thus the Home Government grew stricter, while the Colonies became resentful, angry, hostile. England's old rivals eagerly profited by the discord between Old and New England. The result was the American War, the Independence of the Thirteen Colonies, the splitting of the British race in twain, and the surrender of some of 's new conquests by the disastrous Treaty of Versailles. Never was there a greater contrast than between and . The old colonies fell away; and the system of monopoly and protection on which the old Empire was based received its deathblow. The old channels of trade were rudely diverted, and the old ideas of colonial government roughly overthrown. The Whig reformers even got rid of the Colonial Secretaryship as a useless and superfluous office.

2. Fragments of the old Empire remained British. In

After the West Indian Colonies were universally looked upon as the greatest glory of the British Empire. Besides our original settlements, (), Nevis

Between Granville and the Abolitionists started in Western Africa, where the English African Company had held a few trading stations since the days of Elizabeth, the colony of Sierra Leone for free negroes. The Indian Company's victualling station of St. Helena, a remote island in the Southern Atlantic, and the Bermudas (), now more important than ever as a naval position, completed, with the Gibraltar Rock (), the foreign possessions of England. They were hardly more colonies than itself.

3. [5] Gallant explorers and travellers were now wandering through the unknown parts of the earth, and preparing the way for British enterprise and settlement. The history of eighteenth century travel supplies the heroic element that European history then so signally lacked. 's famous voyage between had done something to open out the dimly-known lands of the Pacific. Captain now stood forth as the Columbus of a new continent and a new island-studded ocean.

[6] James () was the son of a Cleveland labourer. Joining the royal navy, he worked his way up from before the mast, and commanded a sloop at Wolfe's siege of Quebec. In he went on his first voyage to the Pacific to observe the transit of Venus. He took the good chance offered him of getting clear knowledge of the misty island of New Holland, dimly revealed by early Dutch navigators, and Captain William Dampier (-). coasted all along Eastern , which he called , because he thought the hills of the coast looked like the Glamorganshire hills that he saw when sailing up the Bristol Channel. He also practically discovered New Zealand. He came back in . His second expedition (-) was sent out to find the supposed

[7]  opened up a new era of discovery and travel, in which Englishmen took a very prominent part. Flinders, Bass, and Murray carried on his work of surveying , a name now transferred from the shadowy Southern Continent of theorists to the real island continent of New Holland. The survey of the coasts was completed by the Beagle (), in the famous exploring voyage which taught Charles to look upon nature in a new light. In a later generation Sturt, Stuart, Burke, Wills, and Gregory opened up the interior.

[8] Other discoverers now began to travel in the dark regions of Central Africa, led by James Bruce, the Abyssinian explorer () and Mungo Park (), who found out the Niger, and perished in a second expedition in . Missionaries, traders, men of science, and adventurers have been all working ever since to get a clear knowledge of the unknown continent. For thirty years David Livingstone, an undaunted and shrewd Scottish missionary, laboured systematically at the exploration of the south, and prepared the way for successors as devoted as himself. In the new quest for the sources of the Nile was opened by (who has since earned fame as a scholar, linguist, and poet) and Speke. Their labours, together with those of Grant, , , and others, have now almost made clear this ancient mystery.

[9] In Phipps began the modern series of expeditions to the frozen Arctic regions, and in Scoresby, the scientific and energetic mate of a Hull whaler, got within 500 miles of the North Pole. After a long series of failures Captain Parry started in with the Hecla, and worked his way further than had been gone before on the North-West Passage, now clearly seen to be

[10] The great wave of missionary enterprise which set in with the Evangelical movement, besides its own proper results, did much to extend our knowledge and stimulate patient heroism. The brave deeds of travellers for the Gospel's sake are well brought out in the death of John Williams, martyred in , at Erromanga, the slaying of Bishop Patteson, in , by Melanesian islanders, in revenge for the atrocities of the kidnappers, in the whole career of Livingstone, and in the pains and troubles of the Central African Mission which has followed in his footsteps. The fortunes of travel for science' sake can best be followed in the labours of Sir , the botanist, and the companion of , 's epoch-making voyage in the Beagle, Bates's work on the Amazon, 's explorations in Malaya, and the more recent expedition of the Challenger. The labours of a century of earnest and self-sacrificing explorers were the best basis for the new Colonial Empire that sprang from the work of the luckiest and most gifted of them, besides increasing knowledge, spreading civilisation, and opening up new avenues of trade.

4. [11] When America was lost to England, a few farsighted men turned to , now better known through 's favourable reports.

"I am going to offer an object to the consideration of our Government,"

"which may in time atone for the loss of our American Colonies. With good management and a few settlers, in twenty or thirty years they might cause a revolution in the system of European commerce, and secure England a monopoly of some part of it, and a very large share of the whole."

"Let no one think much of a trifling expense,

Who knows what may happen a hundred years hence ?

The loss of America who can repay ?

New Colonies seek then at Botany Bay.

In Captain Phillip was sent out with several shiploads of convicts to prepare the way for the new colony. On 26th January he landed at PortJackson, a noble series of harbours to the north of Botany Bay, which on experience he found to be less suitable for his settlement. On the shores of Port Jackson soon rose a little village of convicts' huts named Sydney, after the minister that furthered the venture. But for many years languished. None but convicts were sent there, and the infant colony suffered severely from famine, and got a very bad name from the wild disorders of its vicious and ignorant population. The outbreak of the great wars against France soon turned English energies into other channels. Yet a beginning had been made of another New England in the Antipodes.

5. [12] The two great wars against Revolutionary and Napoleonic France brought back to England a colonial supremacy wider than ever dreamed of by Chatham. The French West Indies fell twice into British hands, and Tobago was definitely restored to England in . The Danish, Swedish, and Dutch islands were held from to , and from to . Trinidad was wrested from Spain and confirmed to England by the Treaty of Amiens. Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice were taken from the Dutch in , and never restored, becoming henceforward known as British Guiana. Cape Colony was finally occupied in , and ceded in . Mauritius became English in , though Bourbon, taken at the same time, was restored

6. [13] The new colonies were not all clear gain. Except the Cape, which was as yet of little importance, they were all of the hot tropical sort, where the English would only live as a leisurely property -holding class, and they increased the difficulties which the slave question now brought forward. The republican energy and enthusiasm of France had spread to her colonies, and the

"coloured"

"squatted"

7. [14] As the tropical sugar colonies fell back, the colonies in temperate climates, with a population largely or alto gether European, came into greater importance. This made it easier for the new colonial policy to be adopted, which marks the beginning of the present reign. The growth of population, the irregularity of employment, and the lowness of wages, which led to the social and political disturbances of the first forty years of the century, turned thoughtful men to the question of emi gration. It was seen that something more ought to be done than

" shovel out"

The Colonies grew larger and stronger as the stream of emigration flowed with ever-increasing rapidity from the mother-country One result sprang immediately from this. Large masses of Englishmen, freer and more unconventional in their ways than those left at home, would never be satisfied with anything but the fullest rights of self-government. There was now no wish to withstand such demands at home, for public opinion was very careless about colonial questions altogether, and more thoughtful men generally believed that when colonies got strong enough, they would naturally fall away from the mother-country, like America, and took no pains to prevent such a result. The doctrine first taught in Revolutionary France that colonies were parts of the mother- country found no echo in the England of this period. It was an age of economists and laissez-faire, deaf to all higher notions of an Imperial England. But it did the right thing in gracefully yielding the colonial demands, though it thought that in doing so it was simply ripening them for independence. The first step was to grant a local Legislative Council, such as Canada got in . In , the way to this was through nominee Councils, such as that established in in . In two-thirds of the Council of that colony were chosen by popular election. For a time the government remained

The modern Colonial Empire falls into three great groups -North America, , and South Africa. We can best follow their history by taking each group in turn, and seeing how it has fared since the introduction of the new colonial system.

8. [16] During the first third of the nineteenth century affairs got worse and worse in Canada. The popular Legislative Councils constantly quarrelled with the Governments responsible to England, and the increase of the English element embittered the feud of the two Provinces and the two races. The American War between brought the Provinces together for a time, to repel gallantly and successfully the invaders from the United States. But after the Peace of Ghent things went back to the old ways, and the French Canadians, led by Papineau, stopped the supplies and drew up a list of ninety-two grievances. [17] In discontent grew into revolt, which even extended to the Upper Province, which had grievances of its own, and contained a party that sought annexation to the American Union.

The Canadian Conservatives now accepted the democratic system, against which they had contended for so long, and were joined by the more moderate Liberals, while the Clear-grits or extreme Radicals clamoured for annexation to the States. But the greatest difficulty still remained with the French, and deadlocks and disputes sapped the energies of the colony for nearly thirty years. At last in the Civil War in the United States burst out, and made every Canadian feel keenly the divided and defenceless state of British North America. The commercial treaty with the United States lapsed, and the Fenian invasions of revealed a new danger. The result was that the plans for joining together the scattered colonies in a common dominion, which had, hitherto, been started with little enthusiasm, came within the region of practical politics. In negotiations were completed, Sir John , the Conservative leader, representing Canada, while Lord acted as Colonial Secretary.

[19] The Dominion of Canada was now formed under a Governor-General appointed by the Crown, and with a constitution similar in essentials to that of England, with the large modifications made necessary by the acceptance of Federalism. The government was to be carried on by a Cabinet responsible to a Parliament of two houses, of which the House of Commons was elected by a liberal suffrage, and the Senate consisted of members chosen for life. The Federal principle, as in the United States, allowed a full measure of Home Rule to the Provinces of the Dominion, which each had their separate local Parliament and Executive. The union of the two Canadas was given up as hopeless, and French Canada, as the new Province of Quebec, and English Canada as the Province of Ontario, progressed much quicker after their ill-matched elements were kept apart. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick at once joined the Union. In , Manitoba, the rough western region which the growth of the corn trade was soon making important, became a new Province, the defeat of the revolt of the French half-breeds under Louis by having practically settled its future as English and not French. In British Columbia, the region between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific (including Vancouver's Island), which had become important since gold discoveries in , also fell in on the condition of a railway being built to join them with the eastern colonies. In Prince Edward's Island was included, so that Newfoundland alone stood outside the Dominion. Sir John became Conservative Premier of the Dominion, and though defeated in by Mackenzie, got back into office in , and brought in higher customs duties to protect Canada against the United States and Europe. In the Canadian Pacific Railway was opened between Canada and British Columbia, so that an unbroken railway route was established between Halifax and the Pacific coast. In the same year 's second rising was put down, and its leader executed. The Dominion, despite great difficulties, proved a magnificent success. In it contained nearly five million inhabitants.

9. [20] The n Colonies nave shown a still more remarkable development. The early struggles of the convict settlement of were over when in the energy and resourcefulness of Governor Macquarie led to the discovery of the fertile pastures beyond the Blue Mountains. Captain MacArthur

'squatted'

[23] In a settlement was formed on the Swan River in Western , which, after a languishing exist ence, during which convict labour (transportation hither went on till ) alone saved it from extinction, became strong enough to receive a constitution, and has recently grown enormously by reason of the discovery of rich gold-fields.

[24] In a convict station was formed at Port Phillip on the southern coast, but next year it crossed over to Van Diemen's Land. In , however, another settlement was made which gradually became the centre of another great colony. In the town of Melbourne was founded and named after the then Prime Minister, while the land itself gradually dropped its old name of Felix, and became in the independent colony of .

[25] To the south of the large island of Van Diemen's Land, afterwards called Tasmania, became in a convict settlement. In free settlers began to come in. In it became a separate colony with a popular government, having a climate very much like that of England, though less attractive in other ways than some of its neighbours.

[26] 's theories now found a practical application in South , where in the South n Company that he had founded started a new free settlement, with Adelaide, named from the Queen of William IV., as its capital. But

[27] In the New Zealand Association was started on 's plan, and New Zealand was settled in as a dependency of . In the three islands became an independent colony with Auckland as their capital. But they had a great difficulty, especially in North Island, with the fierce, strong, and intelligent natives called Maoris, who were made of much sterner stuff than the weakly and archaic aboriginals of . 's fertile brain here hit on the notion of sending out separate colonies, each professing the same religious belief. In he settled Scotch Presbyterians in Otago, and in Church of England colonists in Canterbury, while English Nonconformists were gathered together at New Plymouth. The result was that nine separate colonies gradually grew up in New Zealand, whose scattered and divided governments soon proved most burdensome and unsatisfactory, though there was a separate central government as well. At last in , after a hot struggle, the provinces were abolished, and New Zealand became a single colony, which has since grown rapidly, though some times, like other young peoples, trusting so completely to its future development as to plan vast and costly works, and saddling itself with a large debt, which, with its present resources, is a somewhat heavy burden.

[28] The growth of free settlement made it impossible to keep up the military government of the days of the convict establishments. The free inhabitants loudly demanded self-government, and some even sought to give the emancipists, or convicts on leave, the rights of citizenship. But the cry was now against transportation altogether, and after no more criminals were

"shovelled"

10. [29] The conquest of , and the settlement of and New Zealand, were rounded off by fresh establishments in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. beginning of them is the cession of Ceylon (), and the conquest of Mauritius (). In Singapore was established as the centre of the English trade in lands once entirely in the hands of the Dutch. After Aden became a great station on the Suez route to , and received a new importance with the opening of the Suez Canal. Hong-Kong, taken in from China, became a naval station and a thriving free port. Sir 's private venture at Sarawak in Borneo was another great impetus to English development in the

11. [30] South Africa stands midway between and the West Indian type of colony, while in some ways suggesting analogies with Canada. It is a genuine colony, whither Dutchmen in the eighteenth century and Englishmen in the nineteenth have fared in large numbers to seek their fortunes. But the native races have always been, and will certainly remain, the great majority of the population. Its history therefore is complicated by the strife of African and European as well as the national hostility of Dutch and English. Partly in consequence of these difficulties, its progress has been much slower than that of Canada or .

[31] When the Peace of Paris finally handed over the Cape Colony to the English, it was ruled by a hardy and stubborn race of Dutch farmers, mutinous against the exclusive government of the old Dutch days, and cherishing the self-government they had won through rebellion before the English occupied their land. They were all stern Calvinists, seeking in the Old Testament their justification for enslaving the Hottentots and the other native races of South Africa. Like the French in Canada, their old-fashioned ways led them to look with great disgust on the adventurous English settlers, who soon began to arrive, though for a long time in small numbers. They were angry that the English had abolished the slave-trade, and resented with still greater bitterness the abolition of slavery itself. After the Eastern Province of Cape Colony began to be settled by the English Government, and Port Elizabeth was founded. The progress of the English East soon began to rival that of the Dutch West, and the strife of the two peoples waxed warmer. [32] In the original Dutch of the Eastern Province abandoned their old homes and

"trekked"

During these years that the constant struggles of the Boers and the English kept alive race hatreds Cape Colony had been getting on very slowly. In military rule was abandoned, and a Council of Nominees set up ; but Dutch and English joined in the cry for representative institutions, and in the first Cape Parliament was opened. In responsible government was established, as in Canada and , and the Home Government, inspired by Lord , sought to bring about a South African Federation like the Dominion of Canada, passing in an Act for the purpose.

[37] Troubles now broke out in South Africa, which soon put an end to schemes of Federation. The Transvaal Boers fiercely resented the suppression of their Free State, and handed over to England a fine crop of difficulties with the natives. The worst of

12. [40] The British dominions now extend over eight million square miles of the earth's surface. Besides myriads of native races, there are ten million colonists of European descent, the mass of them enjoying complete self-government, and being bound to the mother-country only by what we call

"sentimental"

[1] Contrast between 1763 and 1783. Fall of the old Colonial Empire.

[2] The English Colonies after 1783.

[3] Canada and its neighbour Colonies, 1774-1833.

[1] [1783-1793.]

[4] The West Indies, 1783-93.

[5] The Travellers.

[6] Cook's Voyages, 1768-79.

[1] [1772-1871.]

[7] Australian Travel.

[8] African Discovery.

[9] Polar Voyages.

[10] Missionary and Scientific travel.

[11] Beginnings of Australian Settlement, 1788.

[1] [1788-1834.]

[12] Colonial Expansion during the French Wars, 1793-1815.

[13] Decay of the West Indies, 1815-49.

[1] [1849.

[14] The new Colonial Policy.

[1] 1840.]

[15] Wakefield's System of Colonisation, 1829.

[1] [1812-1867.]

[16] North American Colonies.

[17] The Rebellion of 1837, and Lord Durham.

[18] Canadian Unity and Independence, 1840.

[19] The Dominion of Canada, 1867.

[20] Australian Colonies.

[21] New South Wales after 1813.

[22] Queensland, 1859.

[23] Western Australia, 1829.

[24] Victoria, 1803-51.

[25] Tasmania, 1804-56.

[26] South Australia, 1836-40.

[1] [1837-1885.]

[27] New Zealand, 1839-75.

[28] Independence granted to Australia, 1850-56.

[29] The Settlements in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

[1] [1820-1877.]

[30] South Africa.

[31] Cape Colony

[32] The Great Trek, 1835.

[33] Natal, 1843-56

[34] British Kaffraria, 1833-65.

[35] Orange River Free State, 1835-48, and 1854-87.

[36] The Transvaal, 1852-77.

[37] South African troubles, 1877-81.

[1] [1879-1887.]

[38] Zulu war, 1879.

[39] Transvaal Revolt, 1880-82.

[40] The Colonies in 1887.